HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

JOURNAL QUESTIONS

UNIT TWO

Chapter 6:
Bones and Skeletal Tissues



  1. Review the different types of cartilage.
  2. Describe the four classifications of bones. Give examples of each.
  3. List and describe the five functions of bone?
  4. What are the two bone textures and where are they located?
  5. Describe the gross anatomy of a typical long bone. Include diaphysis, medullary (marrow) cavity, yellow bone marrow cavity, epiphysis, articular cartilage, metaphysis, epiphyseal line and plate.
  6. Define periosteum. Describe the location and two layers of the periosteum. Include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, nutrient foramen and Sharpey’s fibers. What are the periosteum’s three functions?
  7. Describe the endosteum and where it is located.
  8. Briefly describe the structure of flat, irregular and short bones. What is diploe?
  9. Why is the red marrow important? Where is it located? How does the medullary cavity of an adult differ from an infant’s? Where is hematopoiesis least active and most active?
  10. Define these microscopic features of compact bone: osteon (Haversian) system, central canal, perforating canal, lacuna, lamella, canaliculi, and osteocytes.
  11. How is the organization of spongy and compact bone different and alike?
  12. Describe the organic components of bone. Define osteoid. Why are collagen fibers in bone necessary?
  13. What is the inorganic component of bone? What characteristic of bone is due to the inorganic portion?
  14. What tissues make up the fetal “skeleton”? Define Ossification. When does the skeleton begin to form? What are the two types of ossification? (Do not go into detail) Which bones are formed from each type of ossification?
  15. Bill Walton Picture
  16. Using fig.6.11 to describe the hormonal mechanism involving calcitonin and parathyroid hormone important to the homeostasis of calcium.
  17. How does mechanical stress affect bones? What is Wolff’s Law?
  18. Describe Osteomalacia, Rickets and Osteoporosis.
  19. Person with Achondroplasia
  20. Person with Acromegaly
  21. Person with Rickets
  22. How Bones Appear with Osteoporosis
    How Bones Appear with Osteoporosis


Chapter9:
Joints



  1. Define articulation or joint. What are the two classifications of joints?
  2. What are the functional classifications of articulations? Define each.
  3. What are the structural classifications?
  4. Describe the three types of fibrous joints. Give examples of each.
  5. Describe the two types of cartilaginous joints. Give examples of each.
  6. Describe the anatomy of a synovial joint. Include articular cartilage, articular capsule, synovial cavity, fibrous capsule, synovial membrane and reinforcing ligaments.
  7. What is the importance of synovial fluid? What is weeping lubrication?
  8. Describe accessory structures include bursa, tendon sheath, articular disc or menisci and fatty pads
  9. What are bursitis and bunions? What is tendonitis?
  10. What three factors influence the stability of synovial joints?
  11. Define these types of synovial joint movements: gliding, flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, protraction, retraction, inversion, eversion, elevation, and depression. (Lab)
  12. Review Quiz Joint Movements
  13. List the six types of synovial joints. Describe the movement associated with each type. Give examples.
  14. How are the fibular and tibial collateral ligaments and anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments vital to the knee joint?
  15. Describe the three types of common joint injuries.
  16. Video Hyperextension of Knee
    Video Hyperextension of Knee
  17. Describe rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and and gouty arthritis
  18. Person with Rheumatoid Arthritis


Chapter 12:
Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue



  1. Describe the importance of the nervous system. What are its three overlapping functions?
  2. Describe the two principle anatomical divisions of the nervous system. Describe the Central Nervous System (CNS). Describe the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
  3. What are the two functional divisions of the PNS? Using figure 11.2 describe the afferent (sensory) divisions of the PNS.
  4. Describe the efferent (motor) divisions of the PNS. What are the somatic and autonomic components of the efferent division responsible for controlling?
  5. What are the two divisions of the ANS?
  6. What are the two principle cell types in the nervous system? What is the general function of glial cells (neuroglia)?
  7. Identify the four types of glial cells in the CNS and describe their functions.
  8. Describe a Schwann cell, its functions and location.
  9. What is the function of a neuron (nerve cell)? Describe three special characteristics of neurons.
  10. What are the two structures that all neurons have? Use figure 11.4 to describe the structure of a neuron cell body (perikaryon or soma): Include Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance) and neurofibrils.
  11. Define nucleus and ganglion.
  12. Define processes, tracts and nerves. What are the two types pf processes?
  13. Describe dendrites. What is their function?
  14. Describe axons. Include axon hillock, trigger zone, axolemma, nerve fiber, axon collateral, terminal branches (telodendria) and synaptic terminals or boutons. What is the axon’s main function? What is the secretory region of the neuron?
  15. Define antegrade movement and why is it necessary?
    Animation of Antegrade Movement
  16. Click on Nervous and try Review Quiz Neuron 1 & 2
  17. What is the myelin sheath and what are its functions? How do myelinated and unmyelinated fibers differ?
  18. Describe the relationship of Schwann cell, myelin sheath and neurilemma. What is gray matter and white matter?
  19. What are the three structural classifications of neurons? Describe each and give an example.
  20. What are the three functional categories of neurons? What are their functions and where is each type located?
  21. Briefly explain how opposite electrical charges are related to energy? What does voltage measure? What is potential or potential difference?
  22. What are non-gated or leak channels and why are they important? Where are they located on the neuron?
  23. How do gated or active channels operate and why are they important? Describe the three types of gated channels.
  24. What are the two gradients that control ion flow? What is the electrochemical gradient?
  25. What is the resting membrane potential (RMP)? Why is it a negative number? What does it mean to be polarized?
  26. Which ions are outside the membrane? Inside? Which ion is most important to the Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)? Why is the difference in ion composition important?
  27. Describe the resting membrane’s permeability to proteins, K, Na and Cl ions. Which ions permeability is most important to the RMP? In which direction do Na and K ions move by their concentration gradient?
  28. Animation Resting Membrane Potential
    Animation Resting Membrane Potential
  29. How is the sodium – potassium pump important to the RMP?
  30. Summarize the resting membrane potential.
  31. Why is a change in membrane potential important and what can cause this change? What are the two types of signals produced by this change?
  32. Define depolarization and hyperpolarization. Which increases the probability of a nerve impulse?
  33. Define graded potential. Explain the characteristics of a graded potential. What causes it to occur?
  34. Describe the characteristics of an action potential.
  35. Outline the four phases of an action potential. Use fig. 11.12. Why is -55Mv significant?
  36. Movement of Ions during Action Potential
  37. Depolarization Repolariztion Video
  38. Great cartoon of action potential at: http://www.brainu.org/action_potential_cartoon.swf
  39. What is the role of the Na-K Pump? (Na-K ATPase)
  40. Click on Nervous, scroll down to Action Potential Physiology and try Action Potential Physiology 1& 2 for Review of Action Potential
  41. How is the action potential propagated along the length of the entire axon?
  42. Animation of Action Potential Review and Propagation
  43. Excellent Animation of Action Potential
  44. What is the all-or - none principle?
  45. How do the absolute and relative refractory periods differ?
  46. What factors accelerate the speed of neural transmission? Describe saltatory and continuous conduction. See Fig. 11.16
  47. Animation Comparing Continuous and Saltatory Conduction
  48. How is Multiple Sclerosis related to myelin?
  49. Describe A, B, and C fibers.
  50. Overall How WE Think
  51. Define synapse. Where are synapses typically found?
  52. What are the two types of synapse? Explain how they differ. Which type is the most abundant?
  53. What is the role of the pre and postsynaptic neuron? What are the three parts of a chemical synapse?
  54. Describe the events that occur at a chemical synapse. Include action potential, calcium ions, synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitter, synaptic cleft, presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic membrane, receptor, sodium gated channels, and depolarization. See figure 11.18.
  55. Animated Review of Chemical Synapse
  56. Animated Review of Action at a Synapse
  57. Describe three mechanisms that end neurotransmitter effects.
  58. Describe an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
  59. Explain how temporal and spatial summation differs. What happens when a neuron is facilitated?
  60. Describe an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).