UNITED STATES HISTORY I

There are three proposed methods for understanding the differences between the Federalists (supporters of the Constitution) and the Antifederalists (opponents of the Constitution). It can be argued that they had 1.)socioeconomic differences or 2.)ideological differences or 3.)were of diffferent "mindedness". "Mindedness" represents a schemata of ideology, socioeconomic status, geographical area, outlook on America and the world, and economic outlook. Federalists were commercial-minded and Antifederalists were agrarian-minded.

The large states supported the Virginia Plan. This was a truly radical departure from the past experience of the Articles of Confederation. It established a national constituency and a national government.

The small states supported the New Jersey Plan. The Plan conferred great powers on Congress but retained the organization of the Articles of Confederation.

The Constitutional Convention settled on the Connecticut or Roger Sherman Compromise which replaced both the Virginia and New Jersey Plans by combining them. The House of Representatives would be based on population favoring the large states while the Senate had equal representation for each state favoring the small states.

Since the overwhelming majority of delegates in Philadelphia were in agreement on the necessity of strengthening the central government, serious controversies arose over large state versus small state issues and sectional issues not over the issue of giving the central government more power.

The Convention settled on four sectional compromises:

• representation ("three-fifths" clause; Article 1, Section 2)
• slave trade (Article 1, Section 9)
• federal regulation of trade (Article 1, Section 8)
• the return of fugitive slaves (Article 4, Section 2)

THE CONSTITUTION AS A POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC DOCUMENT

The Constitution marked the culmination of a movement to check the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and to curb what were perceived to be democratic excesses in the states. The Constitution can be understood as a strong departure from the political concepts and practices of preceding American history when it is compared to the state constitutions and the Articles of Confederation. It marked a desire for a new future when it created a central power of startling magnitude.

POLITICAL OVERVIEW--THE CONSTITUTION AS A POLITICAL REVOLUTION

The Constitution has startling power in Article 1, Section 8. There is a "necessary and proper clause" and a "general welfare" clause. The original document had no 10th Amendment, no Bill of Rights, and the Constitution was characterized as the "supreme law of the land". Despite these powers, the Framers did create "dual sovereignty" with the concept of federalism.

THE CONSTITUTION AS A SOCIAL INSTRUMENT OF CONSERVATIVE POLITICS

The Constituion imposed barriers to the perceptions of excessive democracy. This was implicit in the checks and balances on the national level. The conservatism was explicit in the powers given to the President and the Senate and in the method of electing these officials. It was also explicit in the construction of "contrivances" (2,4,6) to frustrate popular control of government.

THE CONSTITUTION AND THE ECONOMIC GOALS OF CONSERVATIVES

In Article 1, Section 8, Congress was given power to regulate commerce which satisfied merchants and manufacturers. In Article 1, Section 10, the states were prohibited from issuing paper money and enacting debtor relief.

Two dominant and disparate socioeconomic groups were polarized in the two parties which formulated the First American Party System. The Federalists represented the mercantile, shipping, commercial and financial interests. The Jeffersonian Republicans represented the planting, Southern slaveholding, and subsistence farming interests.

It must be remembered, however, that the two different parties represented much more than socioeconomic interests. They also represented and reflected different sectional interests, foreign policy orientations, interpretations of the Constitution, views on human nature, the role of central government, and viewpoints on the world or "mindedness".

A "typical" Federalists came most often from New England and/or the coastal regions of the Middle Atlantic states, generally represented mercantile, shipping, commercial or financial interests and tended to sympathize with or support the English. They favored a more elitist view of government (government should be reserved for the "best sort" of people) to protect the interests of the wealthy. This "typical" Federalist tended to be pessimistic about human nature, supported a liberal (loose, flexible) interpretation of the Constitution, and favored an active, strong, "interventionist" central government. This Federalist was "commercial minded" with an outward, progressive, cosmopolitan viewpoint which believed that American greatness was yet to be realized. This "commercial mindedness" welcomed an active and energetic central government and welcomed the growth and the aspirations of the commercial, financial and mercantile interests in America.

A "typical" Jeffersonian Republican came most often from interior, landlocked (no access to commercial outlets) subsistence farming areas and/or the slaveholding interests of the South (Southern slaveholding interests allied themselves with subsistence farming areas because of their fears of what the central government might do to slavery). This Jeffersonian Republican tended to sympathize with or support the French. The Jeffersonian Republicans were optimistic about human nature and their view of a virtuous citizenry colored their views on central government. This Jeffersonian Republican supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution and favored a minimal, inactive, frugal, "negative" central government. The Republicans advocated states' rights and decentralized governmental power. This Jeffersonian was "agrarian minded" with an inward, parochial, provincial viewpoint which believed that the American Utopia had already been realized in a society of small, independent, virtuous farmers. This "agrarian mindedness" was suspicious of big, active central government. They were provincial and parochial and thus were fearful and suspicious of commercial and financial interests which were viewed as "false wealth". The Jeffersonian Republicans abhorred debt and wanted to cut taxes and spending.

Although Democrats might, at times, disagree with each other on certain issues and might stray away occasionally from certain viewpoints, they "tended" to hold a distinct stance on particular concerns. The Democrats tended to yearn for an older vision of America as they were uncomfortable with and suspicious of the commercialism of the national market economy. They sincerely believed that such commericialism posed a threat to the Republic. Democrats sought an equality of opportunity for individuals that could really be found only in simple societies of small farmers and independent proprietors. Democrats tended to resist the rapid transformation of America's economy and they attempted to destroy all privilege, whether real or imagined. They called for minimal, inactive, "negative" government as they contended that active, interventionist government could only foster unnecessary advantages for individuals or corporations. In their view, active government only encouraged more privilege and thus interfered with equality of opportunity and the equal enjoyment of wealth. The Democrats' narrow view of government blinded them to the possibility of using government for constructive ends. They viewed history as an eternal struggle between the many and the few, between a productive majority and a greedy minority that sought to exploit them. Democrats maintained that equality of individual opportunity had to be protected in order to insure the safety of the Republic and encourage economic growth throughout the country. They insisted, therefore, that political democracy could only be safeguarded on an foundation of economic democracy. The Democrats were the political expression of a resurgent agrarianism (anti-commercial, hard money views) and a reassertion of Jeffersonian orthodoxy (minimal government and states' rights). although the Democrats drew support from all classes and interests, they tended to draw support from small farmers and those areas where the national market economy had made little impact (non-commercial and less prosperous areas). In areas where the national market economy had made greater impact (cities, for example), the Democrats found support from those who resented the change or who did not fully benefit from the change. The Democrats would find great support in the Catholic immigrant community in the latter part of the 1840s and 1850s as the Democrats' stance on minimal government encouraged an acceptance of cultural diversity.

The Whigs started as a hodgepodge coalition of groups opposed to Andrew Jackson. As the Second System matured, however, the Whigs also adopted a distinctive viewpoint. The Whigs were optimistic about the commercialism of the national market economy, and they emerged as the party of energy, nationalism, and constructiveness. They were unafraid of strong government and they were ready to use government to promote economic growth through tariffs, banks, and internal improvements. They saw the constructive force of government. In effect, they articulated a "trickle-down" theory of prosperity. The Whigs contended that by promoting the interests of business, all interests and classes would benefit. They did not concern themselves with individual opportunity as much as the Democrats, believing that government intervention in the economy would benefit all interests. They did not agree with the Democratic view of class conflict, arguing instead for an organic notion of society in which all interests and classes were united in harmony and interdependence. The Whigs believed in social mobility and so everyone had access to wealth. Despite this belief in mobility, Whigs believed that they were still entitled to be the natural leaders of society and government and that leadership should still be reserved to those of talent and ability. In other words, they believed that Americans should still demonstrate a deferential respect for the leadership of the Whigs. Whigs were also more interested than Democrats in programs for humanitarian reform. They did so not only because they were unafraid of government activity, but also because they believed that certain guidelines were necessary in order to "contain" the various forces that accompanied the commercialism of the national market economy. Whigs drew their support from those who were comfortable with the various features and consequences of commercialism. They drew support from those involved in commercial agriculture--businessmen, manufacturers, and upwardly-mobile laborers. Whigs got their support from areas of advanced economic development and areas which had greater commercial contacts with the outside world. The Whigs attracted the interest of British and German Protestant immigrants but not the Catholic immigrant community. The Whigs were not as interested in the extension of political democracy as the Democrats because they believed it would be ruinous to entrust leadership to those who would had not achieved economic success.